Need for Accountability of Predatory Corporations

Need for Accountability of Predatory Corporations Abstract The increased power of non-state actors in developing countries has given multinational corporations considerable influence over the human rights of citizens. Corporations now have power within political economies and the ability to undermine democratic systems.[1] Governments within developing countries rely on corporate investment to support their economy. Due to the expansion of human rights violators, there has been an evolution in the way that transitional justice is implemented. Historically, international human rights laws have focused on the state when dealing with human rights violations. In response to this, international human rights laws or a legally-binding instrument need to be developed in order to hold corporations accountable. This paper will look into the actions currently in motion and the limitations victims may face. The existing tools that transitional politics use to deal with business enterprises that exploit breakdowns of humanity are traditionally international human rights laws. At this time, the framework used against corporations is not legally binding. This is due to the lack of current mechanisms to bring criminal charges against large transnational corporations. The Alien Tort Claims Act has been used in rare occasions and has resulted in settlements outside of court.[2] In an attempt to create voluntary guidelines, the US and European governments created the non-binding UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights in 2011. In 2014, the UN Human Rights Council passed resolution 26/09 that established the need for an international legally binding instrument to regulate, in international human rights law, the activities of transnational corporations and other business enterprises.2 This paper will look at the current evolution within corporate accountability in transitional politics and the weaknesses that were shown when corporations were found to violate human rights. This study will also analyze the effectiveness of various attempts made by international organizations and civil society groups towards implementing human rights accountability on corporations. Introduction Due to globalization, multinational corporations now have the ability to influence human rights practices in developing countries. This has been an issue of major concern due to the significant role corporations play in the national economies of these countries. In these instances, corporations can apply pressure to developing countries to lower national human rights standards.3 According to the democratic social justice organization, Global Justice Now, of the 100 largest economic entities in the world, 69 are corporations and only 31 are countries.[3] The issue of accountability of corporations for the protection of human rights has been largely overlooked and presents new challenges due to the new far-reaching impact corporations have gained over citizens.[4] However, the increased power of other non-state actors like NGOs has resulted in an evolution and increased liability of corporations for human rights violations during breakdowns of humanity. First, we will look at what predatory business behavior is. There are many cases in which the corporation is not the physical perpetrator in human rights violations. In the past, corporations have done this by economically supporting repressive governments, supplying governments or terrorist groups with weapons or materials, contaminating agricultural fields and drinking and bathing water, discriminating against workers, and water privatization.4 During breakdowns of humanity, transitional justice is implemented in order to obtain accountability for victims of human rights violations. Since transitional justices development in the 1980s, their goals have included holding perpetrators accountable, compensating for wrong doing, and preventing future abuses.[5] However, transitional justices goal for holding perpetrators accountable has been predominately focused on criminal prosecutions of individuals.[6]   The rule of law framework that actors use when implemented transitional politics is based upon international law, treaty bodies, and principles and guidelines. However, International human rights law (IHRL) has historically focused on powers only states can exercise and functions only government can fulfill. The gap between host state law, international law, and transnational corporate accountability has led to numerous unaddressed corporate human rights violations.   This study will look at the current framework used by state and non-state actors during transitions and the limitations, challenges, and gaps that exist. Due to increased economic power of transnational corporations, we will look at different levels of obligation focusing on the state and international level.   Finally, this paper will explore the effectiveness of present day efforts by the UN Human Rights Council and other non-governmental organizations and the increased potential for the Alien Tort Claims Act to hold corporations accountable for human rights violations specifically during times of transitional justice.[7] Research Question: How can or should businesses be held to account for predatory behavior around breakdowns of humanity? Thesis Statement/Hypothesis There has been a positive evolution in corporate accountability, however, current legal instruments are not sufficient in holding corporations that violate human rights during breakdowns of humanity accountable. Methodology of the Study The focus of the study will be corporate human rights violations in Africa from 2000-2016. Africa has seen an increased documentation and focus on the relationship between host governments, corporations, and human rights violations. We will focus on this time frame because there has been a noticeable evolution of corporate accountability within transitional justice since 2000. We will do a macro analysis and look at different cases within Africa, identify their patterns, compare key steps that they took, and analyze the outcome. This study will use large datasets and will undertake quantitative data analysis. We will study social trends and the measurable effects of particular policies. This study will explore the steps taken during the transitional justice process and why some instances were successful in obtaining a level of accountability and some were not. We will look at what laws and statues were used and the success of national law and international law. Data Collection Due to recent developments and existing research on this topic, this study will rely heavily on current articles and journals applicable to the study. Secondary analysis will be used to explore areas of interest without having to collect data ourselves in the field. This study will also analyze the existing legal international human rights system for corporate liability and accountability. Research will be collected from various journals, including: Business and Human Rights Journal, International Journal of Human Rights, Journal of International Criminal Justice, and American Journal of International Law. In addition, due to the currently evolving resolution, data will also be collected from the International Center for Transitional Justice, Business Human Rights Resource Centre, Human Rights Watch, United States Institute for Peace, UN Human Rights Council and UN Guiding Principles. Operationalization/Conceptualization Human Rights Within the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), human rights are defined as inherent to human beings and can neither be granted nor taken away by any authority.[8] This issue of human rights violations is viewed as matter of domestic law that historically attracts attention internationally. The UDHR states that human rights consist of basic fundamental rights and freedoms.7 In brief, human rights violations have received international legal recognition through various forums. Throughout this study, the term human rights and the violations against them will be referring to the legal concept of the civil, political, economic, social, cultural, and collective rights laid down in international human right instruments.[9] Corporate Accountability Corporate accountability is the obligation for companies to be answerable for harming the community they reside in and liable for their human rights violations.9 The corporate accountability approach puts corporations in the role of duty-bearers within the framework of human rights.[10] Theoretical Framework The lack of corporate accountability during breakdowns of humanity has led to an abundance of literature seeking to explain the occurrence based on various theories. The Non-Aggressive Principle can be used to reinforce the significance of holding predatory corporations accountable for violations. Economist and political theorist Murray Rothbards formula for the Non-Aggressive Principle states that, No one may threaten or commit violence (aggress) against another mans person or property.[11] This principle is a code of conduct for peaceful living and holds that aggression against the person or property of others is always wrong.9 The Non-Aggressive Principle reinforces the requirement for accountability of aggressive corporate human rights violations during breakdowns of humanity. Literature Review Literature on corporate accountability during breakdowns of humanity has advanced greatly since the 1970s and is reflected by the creation of the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and the UN Draft Code of Conduct on Transitional Corporations.8   However, until the 1990s, the majority of advocacy was focused on the impact that corporations had on the physical environment rather than the human rights of citizens and communities in the areas of operations. The intensification of globalization and the amplified number of human rights abuses has resulted in increased research on the impact corporations have on citizens during breakdowns of humanity. This has resulted in the rise of large NGOs like Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International in reporting human rights violations by corporations and exposing the effects they have on citizens. In the early 2000s organizations and institutes like the International Center for Transitional Justice (2001), Impunity Watch (2004 ) and Transitional Justice Institute (2003) were formed to further pursue accountability for human rights violations during breakdowns of humanity. This study looks at publications by Stephen Bottomley and David Kinley. Their book, Commercial Law and Human Rights, delves into the relationship between non-state actors like corporations and human rights violations.10 This literature argues that corporations are prone to violating human rights. Their work assesses the relationship well, however, it touches on human rights norms in a general sense and it does not address the repercussions of violations or who is responsible for holding corporations accountable.[12] Additionally, the author does not analyze violations specifically during breakdowns of humanity. This study will also look at, Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors, by Andrew Clapham. Clapham details the evolution of corporate accountability and the legal subjectivity of transnational corporations.[13] However, it also does not look at specific violations during breakdowns of humanity. This study will use these two sources to further analyze how international and state law can hold corporations accountable during transitional justice. In 2002, the International Council on Human Rights Policy released a report on the obligations of states when business activity has an impact on the human rights of their citizens. This report looks into the current regulations by international and local government laws as well as lobbying by advocacy campaigns. They argue that corporate accountability currently depends on voluntary approaches. The authors conclude that international norms and laws are developing, but states should be primarily responsible for protecting human rights from corporations.[14] The report does not effectively evaluate how the mechanisms detailed within the project are used as a means of improving corporate accountability during breakdowns of humanity. It also does not take into account recent regulations and mechanisms available due to its creation in 2002. Nicola MCP Jagers published a book that focused on corporate accountability for human rights violations. The author argues that there needs to be internally legally binding regulations of corporations and focuses directly on the state.[15] The author analyzes the obligations under International Human Rights Law and international law. However, it does not take into consideration the recently created UN Guiding Principles or the UN Human Rights Council resolution 26/09.[16] This study will also look at Steven R. Ratners article on corporations and human rights. In this literature, the author argues that there are limits to holding states accountable for human rights violations.[17] The author looks at corporations as global actors and analyzes the problem of state action during breakdowns of humanity. However, it does not specify what mechanisms would be most effective to hold businesses accountable for predatory behavior. The International Center for Transitional Justice is a non-profit organization that specializes in helping transitioning states address legacies of major human rights violations.[18] In recent years they have helped train local activists in documentation of corporate human rights abuses. We will specifically look at various publications and the ICTJs role in countries that have faced human rights violations during breakdowns of humanity. The ICTJs current work will help show the evolution that has occurred within transitional justice and will provide current data on corporate violations. This will further support the literature on corporate accountability by providing current data during breakdowns of humanity. Morton Winston argues the importance of human rights nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in their attempt to influence the behavior of corporations. Winston states that there are eight strategies that NGOs can use when dealing with corporations.19 This article concludes that national government needs to enact enforceable international legal standards in order to fully pursue corporate accountability, however, the literature does not detail who specifically will hold corporations accountable.[19] This study will incorporate the effectiveness of this strategy into our research. This study will also analyze the effectiveness of using the Alien Tort Statute (ATS) to hold corporations accountable. Michael Garvey argues the increased effectiveness of the ATS as a means to redress human rights abuses.[20] This study will look at the current issues with corporate liability and the advantages and shortcomings of the Alien Tort Statute. This paper will examine how businesses should be held to account for predatory behavior during breakdowns of humanity. I will focus on corporate human rights violations in Africa from 2000-2016. Africa is home to many multinational corporations and contains numerous conflict-affected areas with failed governments. There has been a noticeable evolution of corporate accountability throughout periods of transitional justice during this time. The literature suggests that international law is currently an inadequate method to obtain corporate accountability. This study will contribute by giving more focus to the recent evolution that has occurred within corporate accountability during transitional justice. It also seeks to assess and examine the avenues available under international law and recent international instruments to obtain accountability for corporations that violate human rights. Work Cited Carranza, Ruben, and International Center for Transitional Justice. Transitional Justice, Corporate Responsibility and Learning from the Global South. N.p., 28 Apr. 2015. Web. 1 Mar. 2017. Clapham, Andrew. Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors. OUP Oxford, 2006. Print Corporate Impunity: A Startling Ethical Anomaly? International Center for Transitional Justice. International Center for Transitional Justice, Mar. 08. 2015. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. Dodwell, A. (2016, September 12). Corporations running the world used to be science fiction now its a reality. Retrieved from Global Justice Now: http://www.globaljustice.org.uk/blog/2016/sep/12/corporations-running-world-used-be-science-fiction-now-its-reality Forsythe, David P. The UN Security Council and Human Rights: Promising Developments, Persistent Problems. Journal of Human Rights 13.2 (2014): 121-145. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web. Garvey, Michael. Corporate Aiding and Abetting Liability under the Alien Tort Statute: A Legislative Prerogative Boston College Third World Law Journal (Spring 2009) n.pag. Human Rights Historyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ » Corporate Accountability. N.p., n.d. Web. http://humanrightshistory.umich.edu/accountability/corporations/ 14 Feb. 2017. International Council on Human Rights Policy (2000) Beyond Voluntarism: Human Rights and the Developing International Legal Obligations of Companies availableat .(Accessed on 23/02/2017). Jagers, N.M.C.P., Corporate Human Rights Obligations: In Search for Accountability. Brooklyn Journal of International Law, 33.3(2002). Koskenniemi, Martti, Alfred De Zayas, and Steven Wheatley. Book Reviews. International Journal On Minority Group Rights 12.4 (2005): 421-430. Academic Search Complete. Web. 15 Feb. 2017. McPhail, Ken. Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights and Business Schools Responsibility to Teach It: Incorporating Human Rights into the Sustainability Agenda. Accounting Education 22.4 (2013): 391-412. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web. Pagnattaro, Marisa Anne. Enforcing International Labor Standards: The Potential of The Alien Tort Claims Act. Vanderbilt Journal Of Transnational Law 37.1 (2004): 203-263. Academic Search Complete. Web. 13 Feb 2017. Ramasastry, Anita. Corporate Social Responsibility Versus Business and Human Rights: Bridging the Gap Between Responsibility and Accountability. Journal of Human Rights 14.2 (2015): 237-259. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web. Ratner, Steven R. Corporations and Human Rights: A Theory of Legal Responsibility. The Yale Law Journal, vol. 111, no. 3, 2001, pp. 443-545., www.jstor.org/stable/797542. Rothbard, Murray N.. War, Peace, and the State (April 1963). Retrieved 2017-02-28. Santoro, Michael A. Business and Human Rights in Historical Perspective. Journal of Human Rights 14.2 (2015): 155-161. tandfonline.com.library3.webster.edu (Atypon). Web. Stephen Bottomley and David Kinley, Book Review: Commercial law and Human Rights, Osgoode Hall Law Journal 42.1 (2002). UN General Assembly. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. United Nations, 217 (III) A, 1948, Paris,   art.1, http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/. Accessed 13 Feb. 2017. What Is Transitional Justice? International Center for Transitional Justice. International Center for Transitional Justice, Dec. 08. Web. 11 Feb. 2017. Winston, M. (2002), NGO Strategies for Promoting Corporate Social Responsibility. Ethics International Affairs, 16: 70-87. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7093.2017.x [1] Santoro, Michael A. Business and Human Rights in Historical Perspective. Journal of Human Rights 14.2 (2015): 155-161. tandfonline.com.library3.webster.edu (Atypon). Web. [2] Ramasastry, Anita. Corporate Social Responsibility Versus Business and Human Rights: Bridging the Gap Between Responsibility and Accountability. Journal of Human Rights 14.2 (2015): 237-259. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web. 3 Dodwell, A. (2016, September 12). Corporations running the world used to be science fiction now its a reality. Retrieved from Global Justice Now: http://www.globaljustice.org.uk/blog/2016/sep/12/corporations-running-world-used-be-science-fiction-now-its-reality [4] McPhail, Ken. Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights and Business Schools Responsibility to Teach It: Incorporating Human Rights into the Sustainability Agenda. Accounting Education 22.4 (2013): 391-412. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web. [5] What Is Transitional Justice? International Center for Transitional Justice. International Center for Transitional Justice, Dec. 08. Web. 11 Feb. 2017. [6] Carranza, Ruben, and International Center for Transitional Justice. Transitional Justice, Corporate Responsibility and Learning from the Global South. N.p., 28 Apr. 2015. Web. 1 Mar. 2017. [7] Pagnattaro, Marisa Anne. Enforcing International Labor Standards: The Potential of The Alien Tort Claims Act. Vanderbilt Journal Of Transnational Law 37.1 (2004): 203-263. Academic Search Complete. Web. 13 Feb 2017. [8] UN General Assembly. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. United Nations, 217 (III) A, 1948, Paris, art.1, http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/. Accessed 13 Feb. 2017. [9] Koskenniemi, Martti, Alfred De Zayas, and Steven Wheatley. Book Reviews. International Journal On Minority Group Rights 12.4 (2005): 421-430. Academic Search Complete. Web. 15 Feb. 2017. [10] Human Rights Historyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ » Corporate Accountability. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Feb. 2017. [11] Rothbard, Murray N.. War, Peace, and the State (April 1963). Retrieved 2017-02-28. [12] Stephen Bottomley and David Kinley, Commercial Law and Human Rights, (2002). [13] Clapham, Andrew. Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors. OUP Oxford, 2006. Print [14] International Council on Human Rights Policy (2000) Beyond Voluntarism: Human Rights and the Developing International Legal Obligations of Companies available at .(Accessed on 23/02/2017). [15] Jagers, N.M.C.P., Corporate Human Rights Obligations: In Search for Accountability. Brooklyn Journal of International Law, 33.3(2002). [16] Forsythe, David P. The UN Security Council and Human Rights: Promising Developments, Persistent Problems. Journal of Human Rights 13.2 (2014): 121-145. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web. [17] Ratner, Steven R. Corporations and Human Rights: A Theory of Legal Responsibility. The Yale Law Journal, vol. 111, no. 3, 2001, pp. 443-545., www.jstor.org/stable/797542. [18] Corporate Impunity: A Startling Ethical Anomaly? International Center for Transitional Justice. International Center for Transitional Justice, Mar. 08. 2015. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. [19] Winston, M. (2002), NGO Strategies for Promoting Corporate Social Responsibility. Ethics International Affairs, 16: 71-87. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7093.2002.tb00376.x [20] Garvey, Michael. Corporate Aiding and Abetting Liability under the Alien Tort Statute: A Legislative Prerogative Boston College Third World Law Journal (Spring 2009) n.pag.

The Knight´s Yeoman Essay -- Knight Yeoman Essays

The Knight ´s Yeoman He was born in a castle sometime during the twelfth century. It was the same castle that his father and grandfather before him had been born and lived in all their lives. The estate was magnificent and completely self-sustaining. The grounds around the main citadel stretched for miles and included vineyards and farmland as well as fields for cattle and sheep. A small freshwater lake nearby fed several streams which supplied water to the manor house and provided for irrigation. Only a few miles away on the coast was a harbor which attracted trading ships from all around Europe. The castle itself was enormous and could house hundreds in complete comfort and security. Outer walls had been constructed one hundred feet high and twelve feet thick to withstand the fiercest of sieges. Inside the barbicans, however, these same walls were covered with luxurious handmade tapestries depicting scenes of everyday life to maintain the warmth dispersed by the many fireplaces within. Overall the stru cture rivaled in opulence and fortifications the palaces possessed by the wealthiest and most powerful of kings. Unfortunately, it wasn't his castle, nor would it ever be. He entered the world with a particular status in life. Unless misfortune befell him, he would leave the world as an old man just as he had entered it, a yeoman in servitude to a knight of the realm. The yeoman's education came as an apprenticeship in a trade. Only royalty or those destined for the church ever learned to read or write. There would never be any choice for what profession or for what goals one might wish to achieve. One simply did whatever one was born into doing. There was a rigid caste system to follow, and so in the steps of his father and grandfather, he learned the art of being a woodsman. From the earliest moments of his life, the yeoman spent his youth serving the needs of the woods surrounding the estate learning how to use every element of the forest. Whether it was cultivating wood for carpentry, or studying the migratory habits of game animals, he learned to survive and exist under the trees. There would be no other teachers for him other than his father and the older apprentices also in servitude. The apprentices would sometimes spend weeks and even months in the surrounding forests. Living in shelters made from branches and wearing clothes fabricated f... ...th life and battle and had little respect for the ways of chivalry. His first love was for women, and he cared little for devotion to either God or the kingdom. On many occasions long into the night before a battle when time should have been spent praying for divine protection, he was found in the arms of a woman. He had been lucky so far that his recklessness had not gotten him killed or captured. Nevertheless, all this was of little concern to him, he was young and handsome and felt that he had a world of women to conquer. Chaucer in describing the lusty bachelor stated that: "So hote he loved that by nightertale. He slepte namore than dooth a nightingale" And so it came to pass one spring that upon returning from a winter campaign, the knight felt it an opportune time to take his son on a pilgrimage to visit the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury. It would be both an opportunity for them to express their sincere devotion to God as well as spend some pleasurable time together. They would spend several weeks on the road and so again the yeoman was conscripted as their servant. He would act as their valet as he watched over them while they traveled along the road.

Developing the management skills

Irrespective of the cadre one is employed in, a modest behavior with one another, at all times is essential to not to give rise to behavior problems which in turn require an exercise of motivation tool by the management. However, problems set to arise when different mindsets come together for the purpose of work and solutions are always available for every problem of behavior in an organization. Appreciably EL, a professional organization, has appointed a consultant, an outsider to analyze the behavior of its employees to enable a crystal clear picture of employees behavioral and motivational problem.EL behavioral and motivational guidelines are excellent in setting a pattern of standards for employees. As it appears, engineers who form 88 per cent, are predominantly important for the operations whereas on this basis, the other employees are in some ways are encountering behavioral problems with engineers. There are no weaknesses for EL whereas the company has the ability to manage p eople well except to the fact that complete decision making is under the guidance of company’s President.As for the President of EL, the high priority task would be to allow an open discussion forum of both engineers and administrative employees and consider written proposals for handling behavioral problems and after a thorough analysis of paper work, consider a motivational workshop wherein both engineers and administrative staff are encouraged to maintain harmony in workplace without giving cause to indifferent attitudes in work place. Per se, salaries, turnover, office and facilities are perfect and employees also have the support of consultant to discuss and put forth the issues that are causing concern.ConclusionScotland workshop on motivation considers that   FUN = ENERGY = MOTIVATION = FOCUS = RESULTS.   Individual performance as well teamwork is important for organizations to deliver quality work.   In order to train employees for total quality management   ( TQM) awareness workshops must be conducted to encourage employees to exercise sharpening of skills,   explore individual strengths and lacunae areas. Finally, perfect and appropriate communication   solves half of the problems as a powerful motivational tool.References Motivated to succeedAccessed on 8 April 2007http://www.scotlandis.com/content_files/downloads/wet%20loth%20it.pdfBlaire Palmer (2005), Optimum Newsletter – Manager vs leaderAccessed 8 April 2007http://www.optimum-coaching.co.uk/news/motivation_newsletter_apr05.htm

Why Online Casino Games Are Becoming Increasingly Popular

Blog 26 – 5 more reasons why online casino games are becoming increasingly popular Thankfully for players around the world, the need to visit a land-based casino in order to place a wager is now a thing of the past. During the late 1990s a brand new web-based concept gate crashed the gambling scene and changed the face of the industry forever. Online casino gaming has made gambling more accessible than it has ever been before. Pushing land-based casino play well into the background, casino online gaming is now growing in popularity and here are 5 more reasons as to why that is the case. Reason No. 1 – Play Anywhere Odds are they are memories that have a tinge of nostalgia about them, but let’s be honest; visiting a land-based casino to†¦show more content†¦Adding to the degree of variety made available, web-based casinos also make room for game tutorials and various other educational tools. Reason No. 3 – Player Anonymity Digital innovation has done wonders for the world of casino play. While everyone is aware of what it has done for game variation and accessibility, it is also worth mentioning what it has done with regards for anonymity. Unless you choose to make your screen something that reflects who you are, you are able to play in total anonymity. The best casino online brands now also incorporate bitcoin, a currency that allows for not just partial anonymity while gambling online but total anonymity. When everything is factored into the equation in most instances the only person who will ever know that you are gambling online is you. Reason No. 4 – Boundary-less Play What makes casino gaming extra special is the fact that it in today’s environment there really is no boundaries in place. Any place, any setting, any game, any jackpot, and under almost any circumstance, the industry is open and available to anyone who is willing to wager online not matter where it is in the world they live. From 1p to  £100,000 you can wager whatever it is you feel and there is nothing stop you. Reason No. 5 – Social Acceptance For years the rest of the world derived both the web-based casino

Essay Human Rights Violations in the War on Terrorism

Following the September 11th terrorist attacks in which at least 3,000 people were killed, the United States has pursued policies that violate human rights in order to wage the war on terrorism. These policies include the adoption of new security measures, the poor treatment of captured fighters at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba, and the willingness of the Bush administration to overlook human rights violations in other countries in return for their support in the war on terrorism. When the enemy is faceless, as it is in the United States fight against terror, there is a tendency to violate human rights in order to identify the perpetrators and anticipate further atrocities. Violations include detaining suspects without†¦show more content†¦From a democratic standpoint, these actions cannot be considered just or moral. In addition to new security legislation, the United States also defies human rights standards through the treatment and legal status given to the Taliban and Al-Qaeda prisoners being held at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba. According to the Geneva Convention (1949), in which the United States is a party, a captured fighter is considered a prisoner of war if they are members of an adversary states armed forces or are part of an identifiable military group that abides by the laws of war. Since most members of Al- Qaeda did not wear insignia or abide by the laws of war, they would probably not qualify as prisoners of war. However, Taliban soldiers comprised the armed forces of Afghanistan and should be entitled to POW status (http://www.hrw.org). 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Graduation Speech My Life - 942 Words

My â€Å"about me paper† is going to start with elementary school; my life has had many events, but it was not until school when my journey really had begun. Growing up I had always been the happy, naive, child most people are use to; I was always smiling, but when it came to school work I dreaded it. From first grade to fifth I had a tutor every year and almost every summer. At first it was the reading then once I concurred that, it was the math, life just never gave me a break. Being the child I was, I could not fully understand why I was the way I was. I was tested for ADHD and got on a low dose of adderall; this solved some of the problem. It helped me focus in class, but I had mood swings and was zombi like. Fifth grade came along it got only worse and with the teacher I had it only got harder. As a struggling ten year old, in a fancy private school, and a teacher that did not understand me, I was domed for failure. My teacher sat me out of recess every day to work on my â€Å"math corrections,† yet would not fully teach me what I was doing wrong and how to fix it. I would come home just about every afternoon, mad because it would take me three hours to do homework. My mom watched me struggle and feel defeated. I would say things like â€Å" I’m not going to make it to college† or â€Å" I’m stupid†. Finally, my mom took me off of the adderall, and got my tested for dyslexia. Dyslexia runs in my family so when the test came back that I was dyslexic, it was not a surprise. The school IShow MoreRelatedGraduation Speech : My Life977 Words   |  4 PagesUniversity. My parents were hosting a graduation brunch for me at the scenic Valley Green Inn in Philadelphia’s historic Fairmount Park. There were over a hundred guests present that day, a mix of family, friends, and others who made an impact on me over the course of my life. It was just a few short months away from the beginning of law school. 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Binge Drinking Final Essay Research Paper Drinking free essay sample

Binge Drinking ( Final ) Essay, Research Paper Drinking has become an increasing job in our society. Many people now see imbibing as a norm. Lisa McIntyre, writer of The Practical Skeptic provinces that, # 8220 ; For one thing, we know that norms vary across societies # 8221 ; ( 152 ) . So we besides know that what is considered to be aberrant varies across societies. # 8221 ; How could members of our society see imbibing as anything but a norm when everyplace one turns intoxicant is being advertised? Whether it be on hoardings, coachs, in magazine ads, or telecasting commercials, intoxicant is everyplace and it seems as though everyone is imbibing it. Gone are the times of prohibition, when intoxicant was seen as immorality. After making quantitative research on imbibing, including a literature reappraisal and analyzing study informations, we came to the decision that imbibing is a serious job in the United States. While both of us prefer non to imbibe, many of our equals do non portion our same attitude. In fact, it appears as if imbibing is now a step of societal credence among adolescents and college pupils. Looking at the topic of imbibing from a conflict theoretician point-of-view helped us to understand the issue. We discovered that every societal category drinks, irrespective of age, income, race, or sex. We wanted to see the effects of imbibing in our society and which groups of people were more likely to take part in such activities. However, when we began to seek for variables of imbibing, we were discouraged to happen that none existed in our provided databases. # 8220 ; To name a construct a variable agencies, in the first topographic point, that it is a thing of involvement in a peculiar piece of research # 8221 ; ( McIntyre 50 ) . While we were interested in utilizing a variable of imbibing in our research, the deficiency of one made us presume that many members of society do non see intoxicant as a serious job, or are in denial of its effects. Because of this, we had to utilize a variable of drug usage, that being whether marihuana should be made legal or non, presuming that those who answered yes to the inquiry, were current marihuana tobacco users. Though we do non see marihuana usage as a job, it was the lone other mind-altering substance that we felt could be even mildly compared to alcohol. We do non experience that marihuana has any of the same societal effects as intoxicant, and is non a true job among our society, but one time once more, it was the lone variable we could mensurate. Make note that in all theories and hypothesis we tested, we really were saying our positions as though intoxicant was the variable, non marijuana. We started our research by proving our theory that people who smoke marihuanas were more likely to hold unprotected sex, because marihuana alters the head # 8217 ; s ability to believe clearly. Often times, people who are # 8220 ; high # 8221 ; make non believe about the hazards of holding unprotected sex, or even utilizing a rubber for that affair. We so developed the hypothesis that people who smoke marihuanas are more likely to non utilize rubbers during sexual intercourse. To trials these thoughts, we operationalized the dependent variable of rubber, which asks the inquiry, # 8220 ; The last clip you had sex was a rubber used? This includes vaginal, unwritten, or anal sex. # 8221 ; We so used the independent variable of grass, which asks the inquiry, # 8220 ; Do you believe the usage of marihuana should be made legal or non? # 8221 ; Here are the consequences: Table I: Whether a Person Feels That Marijuana Should be Made Legal or Not and Condom Usage The information showed that people who do non experience marihuanas should be made legal are more likely to non utilize rubbers during sex, hence, rejecting our hypothesis and turn outing the exact antonym. This could be due to the fact that married people or twosomes in serious relationships frequently do non utilize rubbers as a chief signifier of birth control. However, the correlativity was really weak, even though the chance was low. To see if our anticipation about why that certain group of people were the most likely to non utilize rubbers, we controlled for matrimonial position. The consequences were fundamentally the same except that, as we predicted, married people were more likely to non utilize rubbers and do non experience that marihuana should be legalized. However, people who were neer married were more likely to smoke weed and non utilize rubbers. Once once more, the correlativities were really weak and had small or no statistical significance. The 2nd theory we tested was that marihuana inhibits the head # 8217 ; s ability to believe clearly and sometimes causes users to take actions they would non normally take under normal fortunes. Smokers frequently lose their suppressions while # 8220 ; high, # 8221 ; which could take them to hold sex with people they hardly know. We so hypothesized that people who smoke marihuanas are more likely to hold a higher figure of sex spouses. In order to prove our thoughts, we operationalized the dependent variable of sex spouses, which asks the inquiry # 8220 ; How many sex spouses have you had in the last 12 months? # 8221 ; . Respondents could reply none, one, or two or more. Again, we used the inquiry of whether or non a individual thinks marihuanas should be made legal or non as our independent variable. Here is what we found: Table II: Whether a Person Feels That Marijuana Should be Made Legal or Not and Number of Sex Partners The consequences showed that people who smoked marihuana did, on norm, have more sexual spouses than non-smokers. While non-smokers did hold higher per centums of one sex spouse ( 68.1 % to 59.6 % for tobacco users ) , our chief concern was with people who had two or more sex spouses. Smokers were decidedly more likely to hold two or more sex spouses ( 26.4 % to 10.9 % for non-smokers ) . Though the correlativity was merely moderate, the chance was an highly low 0.000, therefore doing the correlativity and consequences extremely statistically important. We wanted to see if male or female marihuana tobacco users were more likely to hold a higher figure of sex spouses so we controlled for gender in the tabular array. The consequences were fundamentally the same, except that males and females who smoked marihuana had even higher per centums of two or more sex spouses ( 32.2 % for males and 20.1 % for females ) than in the initial informations. Once once more, the information was extremely statistically important and reasonably correlated. We so theorized that females tend to hold more close friendly relationships than work forces. This is due to the fact that adult females are frequently more unfastened with one another and love to speak. Males may experiment with drugs in order to make full the clip frame they would be passing with friends, while adult females fill their clip with their friends speaking or shopping. Created from this theory, was our hypothesis that males are more likely to smoke marihuanas than females. In order to prove these thoughts, we had to utilize the step of marihuana as our dependant variable operationalized, and the independent variable of gender, or instead answering # 8217 ; s sex. These are the consequences: Table III. Gender and Whether a Person Thinks That Marijuana Should be Made Legal or Not The information showed that work forces were more likely than adult females ( 31.4 % to 23.3 % ) to prefer the legalisation of marihuana, therefore taking us to deduce that they are more likely to smoke marihuana. Besides, work forces were less likely than adult females to experience that marihuana should non be made legal. Although the consequences were highly statistically important, the correlativity was really weak. When we controlled for degree of employment, the consequences were reasonably much the same. No affair if they were working or unemployed, females were much less likely to prefer the legalisation of marihuana. Once once more, the consequences were extremely important, yet weakly correlated. The following theory we tested was that people who work experience more societal integrating than those who are unemployed. Because marihuana alters the head # 8217 ; s believing procedure, people who work are less likely to utilize the drug because they do non desire their public presentation to be effected. From our theory, we developed a hypothesis that people who are employed are less likely to smoke marihuana. In order to prove these thoughts we used the step of marihuana as our dependant variable, and operationalized the independent variable of working, which asks the inquiry, # 8220 ; Was respondent working or unemployed the old hebdomad? # 8221 ; . Here are the consequences: Table IV: A Person # 8217 ; s Level of Employment and Whether Marijuana Should be Made Legal or Not The information supported our theory. Those who were unemployed at the clip of the study were far more likely to prefer the legalisation of marihuana ( 46.9 % to 29.0 % ) than people who worked. While the correlativity was weak, the consequences were really statistically important. Curious about whether a individual # 8217 ; s age effected the consequences, we decided to command for age. The consequences remained the same. In each age class those who were unemployed were far more likely to prefer smoking marihuanas than people who worked. However, the control information was weakly correlated and non of statistical significance. Yet another theory we tested was that people with higher incomes frequently experience more societal stratification. They frequently feel that they must populate up to high function outlooks and positions and hence see drugs as a aberrant step, one that is clearly unacceptable and would do others look down upon them. We so hypothesized that people with lower household incomes are more likely to smoke marihuana. Once once more, we used the step of marihuana as the dependant variable while utilizing household income which asks the inquiry, # 8220 ; In which of these groups did your entire household income, from all beginnings, autumn last twelvemonth, before revenue enhancements that is? # 8221 ; . Respondents could take three different classs which were: $ 1,000- $ 19,999, $ 20,000- $ 39,999, or $ 40,000 and up. These are the consequences: Table V: Family Income and Whether a Person Believes Marijuana Should be Made Legal or Not While the consequences did demo that every bit income increased the credence of marihuana being legalized decreased and as income increased the rate of those against the legalisation of marihuana increased, the consequences were non statistically important. In fact, the correlativity was highly weak and the chance was non in our favour, intending our hypothesis was rejected. Possibly these consequences were due to the fact that as we ab initio stated, aberrant behaviour, such as drug usage and alcohol addiction, are a manner for people to derive societal credence. When we controlled for gender the consequences were a small different. Lower income females still favored the legalisation of marihuana over adult females in other income brackets, but females in the high-income bracket favored legalisation more than those in the in-between income bracket. Surprisingly, males in the in-between income bracket were more in favour of the legalisation of marihuanas than any other income bracket. They were besides the least likely to oppose legalisation. When we began utilizing the States database, we were eventually able to utilize a step of intoxicant. Due to this new step, we were able to speculate that people who attend church experience higher degrees of societal integrating, and because of this integrating and friendly relationships, these people do non experience as lonely and are non every bit tempted to imbibe. Many church members are extremely spiritual and experience as though it is a wickedness to imbibe. We so hypothesized that provinces with higher degrees of church members would hold lower degrees of intoxicant ingestion. To prove these thoughts we used a step of intoxicant, gallons of alcoholic drinks consumed per individual 16 and over, as our dependant variable. We used church members, per centum of population belonging to a local church, as our independent variable operationalized. Here is what we found: Scatterplot I: States # 8217 ; Church Members and Gallons of Alcohol Consumed Per Person The consequences of the scatterplot supported our theory. States with higher per centums of church members did hold lower rates of intoxicant ingestion. The correlativity was a strong negative, turn outing our hypothesis correct. The chance was an highly low 0.000 doing the correlativity extremely statistically important. The following theory we tested with this new step of intoxicant was that divorced people lose many of their societal ties, such as in-laws, partner, relations, and even kids after a divorce. Often they are lonely and may turn to alcohol to kill the clip or even as an effort of run intoing new people. We hypothesized that provinces with higher per centums of divorced people would hold higher degrees of intoxicant ingestion. In order to prove these thoughts we one time once more used the step of intoxicant as the dependant variable and used per centum divorced, the per centum of those 15 and over who presently are divorced as the independent variable operationalized. These are the consequences: Scatterplot II: States # 8217 ; Percent Divorced and Gallons of Alcohol Consumed Per Person The consequences of the scatterplot supported our theory. States with higher per centums of divorced people had higher rates of intoxicant ingestion. The correlativity was strongly positive, while the chance was highly low, in our favour. Besides, the consequences were extremely statistically important. Finally, we looked at a step of societal stratification and formed a theory based on it. We theorized that hapless people frequently do non hold as many societal ties as wealthier people. They frequently lack the money to fall in nines, attend parties, and purchase nice vesture. Sometimes they experience less position outlooks and function strain and therefore may see imbibing as a wholly normal manner to pass their clip. We so hypothesized that provinces with higher per centums of hapless households will hold higher degrees of intoxicant ingestion. Again the step of imbibing was the dependent variable. The independent variable was the per centum of hapless households, or instead the per centum of households below poorness degree, in each province. Here are the consequences: Scatterplot III: States # 8217 ; Percent of Poor Families and Gallons of Alcohol Consumed Per Person The scatterplot supports the exact antonym of our theory and hypothesis. The correlativity was a weak negative, while the chance was highly low, but non in our favour. The consequences were statistically important, taking us to believe that possibly hapless households are excessively hapless to even buy intoxicant, and possibly hold found cheaper ways to pass their clip. After finishing our research, we discovered that intoxicant is a major job in the United States. Many people can non acknowledge the badness of the job, including pupils, parents, and society as a whole. We came to this decision due to the fact that intoxicant was non used as a variable or step in barely any databases or studies. We wish that we could hold tested all of our theories utilizing intoxicant alternatively of marihuanas because we believe they would hold resulted in higher correlativities. Besides, we would hold liked to hold been able to command all of the correlativities for high school and college age pupils, because we feel that these peculiar groups of people are most harmed by the effects of intoxicant ingestion. While we did detect that males are more likely to make drugs than females, marihuana tobacco users tend to hold more sex spouses, unemployed people smoke marijuana more than employed people, and hapless people are more acceptable of the legalisation of marih uana, we still feel that these thoughts would hold been more important if intoxicant was a variable. Another job we had with the survey was that we questioned who the respondents were in the studies. We realize that older Americans are greatly against the legalisation of marihuanas and may non hold answered inquiries sing its legalisation as would adolescents or people in their mid-twentiess. Older Americans frequently do non see alcohol as such a job because they are over the legal imbibing age and do non gorge drink as frequently. We still believe our initial theory, that people drink in order to derive societal credence, to be true. If there was any possible manner to prove this theory we would love to make so. However, as our available databases do non let, we will merely presume that this would be the consequence of extended surveies. Plants Cited # 8220 ; Binge Drinking in College: A Definitive Study. # 8221 ; Harvard School of Public Health. Aug. 1995. 23 Nov. 2000. *http: //www.hsph.harvard.edu/Organizations/cas/test/rpt1994/CAS1994rpt.shtml* . 1996 General Social Survey. ( 2,904 instances, 169 variables ) McIntyre, Lisa. The Practical Skeptic. Mountain View, CA. Mayfield, 1999. The 50 States of the United States. ( 50 instances, 117 variables ) # 8220 ; Binge Drinking in College: A Definitive Study. # 8221 ; Harvard School of Public Health. Aug. 1995. 23 Nov. 2000. . 1996 General Social Survey. ( 2,904 instances, 169 variables ) McIntyre, Lisa. The Practical Skeptic. Mountain View, CA. Mayfield, 1999. The 50 States of the United States. ( 50 instances, 117 variables )